Manufacturing Technology Journal - Latest articles
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Degradation Behaviour of P235GH, P265GH and P355GH Steels in High-Temperature Boiler Applications
Alena Breznická, Michal Krbaťa, Marcel Kohutiar, Pavol Mikuš, Ľudmila Timárová, Jozef Jaroslav Fekiač, Lucia Kakošová, Alex Jeluš
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):271-279 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.036 
The study focuses on the evaluation of the degradation behaviour of structural materials used in a heat exchanger boiler exposed to elevated thermal, pressure, and cyclic loading conditions. The research is aimed at non alloy pressure steels P235GH, P265GH, and P355GH employed in critical boiler components. The objective of the study was to analyse the effect of temperature in the range of 250–600 °C on the residual mechanical properties, plastic deformation, and fatigue behaviour of these materials. The results indicate that at temperatures above 300–400 °C, a significant degradation of mechanical properties occurs. The residual...
Gradient Stiffness Modelling of Thin Adhesive Bonds
Kamil Anasiewicz
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):258-270 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.035
The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of through-thickness variability of Young’s modulus on the numerical modelling of adhesive joint behaviour. The study combined experimental characterization with finite element simulations. Nanoindentation measurements were used to deter-mine the distribution of Young’s modulus across adhesive layers with thicknesses of 0.05 mm and 0.1 mm. Based on these measurements, two-dimensional finite element models of double-overlap joints were developed in Abaqus. Two modelling approaches were analysed: a conventional homogeneous model with constant material properties and a heterogeneous...
Impact of Infill Patterns and Densities on the Mechanical Strength of FDM 3D-Printed Components
Marija Dimovska, Nenad Radenkovikj, Ognen Tuteski, Ema Vasileska, Boban Kusigerski, Mite Tomov, Valentina Gechevska
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):280-295 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.034
Additive manufacturing (AM), more commonly known as 3D printing, is a highly convenient manufacturing process that enables the creation of complex 3D objects. The large body of literature proved that the choice of material, the printing technology used, and the values of certain process parameters all influence the mechanical behavior of the final part. In this study, the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) technology was used to manufacture standardized test specimens, which were all subjected to mechanical testing. The main aim of the research was to investigate the effects of various infill pat-terns, combined with various infill densities, on tensile...
Mathematical Analysis of Predictive Maintenance Strategies for Enhanced Manufacturing Efficiency
Varsha Haridas Sadrani, Lowlesh Nandkishor Yadav, Jan Blata, Shradhesh Rajuji Marve, Ankita Rekkaward, B Swarna, Robert Cep
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):380-394 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.033
In manufacturing, the demand is always for better proficiency, less operational costs, and greater effectiveness. The key in achieving these requirements through adept handling is, in fact, maintenance of machines and devices. Combinations of regular maintenance schemes, preventive and curative methods, usually tend to swing between unnecessary maintenance jobs and unexpected equipment failures. This situation calls for a need to develop a more sophisticated approach, which gives rise to Predictive Maintenance (PdM). PdM is different from the rest because it forecasts changes that lead to failure in the equipment even before they seem probable, preparing...
Research on Flow and Erosion Characteristics of Supercritical Regulating Valve
Yongqiang Pan, Qiong Liu, Yue Tang
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):372-379 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.032
The regulating valve is a key component of the hydraulic control system. The flow characteristics of the regulating valve are an important parameter for the structural design of the regulating valve. The flow coefficient of the regulating valve directly reflects its flow characteristics, so it is significant to calculate the flow coefficient of the regulating valve accurately. Generally, the flow coefficient is determined by the empirical formula method or experimental method, and the accuracy and efficiency of the calculation are relatively low. In this study, a method for calculating the flow coefficient of the regulating valve com-bined with numerical...
Effect of Solution Heat Treatment Parameters on the Mechanical Properties of Re-aged EN AW-7022 Alloy
Mariana Kuffová, Michal Krbata, Marcel Kohutiar, Pavol Mikuš, Alena Breznická
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):334-345 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.031
The presented article deals with the influence of different solution annealing temperatures and times on the mechanical properties and microstructural changes of the EN AW-7022 aluminum alloy after two-stage re-aging. After the initial soft annealing, the samples were subjected to solution annealing at temperatures of 475 °C/20min, 500 °C/20min, 525 °C/30min and 575 °C/30min, followed by two-stage artificial aging at 120 °C/4h and 175 °C/6h. The mechanical properties were evaluated by static tensile testing and Vickers hardness measurements. The highest strength characteristics were recorded at 525 °C/30min. Metallographic and EDS analysis confirmed...
Applications of the Boriding process in the Defence industry
Martin Jaššo, Richard Pastirčák, Peter Fabian, Jozef Bronček
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):319-333 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.030
The study analyses current trends in the manufacturing of highly stressed components used in the defence industry, with a particular focus on handgun components. These parts are commonly produced from low-alloy steels that are refined to achieve medium strength levels. To enhance their resistance to mechanical and thermal loading, conventional production routes typically involve surface hardening followed by tempering. This study investigates the potential of replacing these established methods with a chemical–thermal surface treatment, specifically boriding, in which the surface layer is enriched with boron atoms. The mechanical properties of...
Comparative Surface Roughness Performance of Al7075, Al6061, and Al5052 in End Milling Using Taguchi L16 S/N and Anova
Richard A M Napitupulu, Siwan Edi Amanta Perangin-angin
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):346-355 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.029
This study examines the effects of cutting parameters on surface roughness (Ra) for three aluminum alloys AL7075, AL6061, and AL5052 using a Taguchi L16 (4³) design, smaller-is-better signal-to-noise (S/N) analysis, and ANOVA. Experiments were conducted on a 3-axis CNC milling machine with a 2-flute Ø6 mm carbide end mill. Overall, AL7075 produced the smoothest surface (minimum Ra = 0.143 μm), followed by AL6061 and AL5052. The observed trends are consistent with machining mechanics: increasing cutting speed suppresses built-up edge (BUE) and vibration, whereas larger feed and depth of cut (doc) increase chip load and tool deflection....
Analysis of Atmospheric Plasma Spray Surface Composite Multilayer for Tire Mold Applications
Jan Novotný, Filip Mamoń, Štefan Michna, Tomáš Vlach
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):364-371 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.028
Usti nad Labem. Czech Republic. E-mail: jan.novotny@ujep.cz This work investigates atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) coatings on aluminum molds used for truck tire vulcanization. Cobalt-based powders (MS1) and a NiAl interlayer combined with cobalt powders (MS1 + MS2) were deposited on AlMg3Mn alloy substrates. SEM/EDS analyses revealed that the NiAl interlayer improved adhesion, reduced chromium agglomeration, and enhanced ele-mental homogeneity. Vickers microhardness testing showed higher hardness values for MS1 + MS2 (457 HV 0,3) compared to MS1 (436 HV 0,3). Despite some residual cracks and porosity, their impact on per-formance was minimal. The...
Marker-Based Photogrammetric Modelling of the Lower Leg Using Agisoft Metashape for 3D-Printed Splints
Minh-Ky Nguyen, Natasa Naprstkova, Tuong Nguyen Van
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):356-363 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.027
Designing patient-specific 3D-printed splints requires accurate limb geometry acquisition. Professional 3D scanners are commonly used for acquiring the 3D geometry of limbs but they are high cost and less accessible in routine clinical practice. Photogrammetry, which reconstructs 3D models from 2D images captured by digital or smartphone cameras, provides a low-cost and flexible alternative. This study proposes a practical workflow for lower leg modelling using Agisoft Metashape and AutoCAD, employing two printed markers as scaling references. The two markers with a precisely defined inter-marker distance of 150 mm were printed on an A4 sheet and used...
3D Printing – Weight Optimization of FDM-Printed Components Using PLA and PETG
Alexandr Fales, Vít Černohlávek, Marcin Suszynski, Jan Štěrba, Patrik Balcar, Marek Makúch, Pavel Houška
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):296-306 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.026
Within the framework of my doctoral thesis, the selection of suitable FDM 3D printing parameters for the fabrication of parts for modular educational robotics kits is systematically analysed. The research encompasses both the choice of an appropriate 3D printer and the design and implementation of a series of experimental measurements and mechanical tests aimed at obtaining a sufficiently robust data set for determining the optimal combination of filament materials and printing parameters. These parameters are intended to ensure that the printed parts achieve the required dimensional, weight, and mechanical characteristics while minimizing the need...
Study on Removal Mechanism and Surface Topography in Ultrasonic-Assisted Grinding of High Volume Fraction SiCp/Al Composite
Weicheng Guo, Hailong Zhang, Miaoxian Guo
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(3):307-318 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.025
High volume fraction SiCp/Al composites are highly valued in aerospace, automotive, and electronic packaging for their exceptional mechanical and thermal properties. To enhance the machinability of these difficult-to-cut materials, this study systematically evaluates ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding (UAG) against conventional grinding (CG). Experimental comparisons reveal that UAG lowers grinding forces by up to 26%, a benefit primarily driven by the reduction in undeformed chip thickness (UCT). This kinematic modification optimizes the particle removal mode, thereby mitigating severe particle fracture and interfacial debonding. Crucially, the...
The Effect of Drill Bit Features on Surface Quality, Drill Wear and Drilling Cost – Sustainable Drilling
Murat Kiyak
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):176-184 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.024
In drilling operations, hole quality is affected by factors such as drill diameter, drilling parameters, drill bit properties, workpiece material. A large portion of the drilling energy is converted into thermal energy, which can be measured as temperature. In this study, surface roughness of holes, drill tip wear and drill tip temperatures were determined using two different workpiece materials and three different drill tips. Furthermore, the costs of holes drilled with different drill bits were determined and interpreted based on drill bit characteristics. The results obtained can be optimized according to the process parameters and it has been shown...
Process Parameter Effects on Cutting Efficiency and Specific Energy in Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Lianhuan Guo, Teng Ma, Jin Lan
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):164-175 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.023
The cutting performance of abrasive water jet (AWJ) machining is commonly evaluated using cutting depth, cutting efficiency, and specific cutting energy. To systematically investigate the influence of process parameters on AWJ cutting performance, a five-axis CNC cutting platform was developed, allowing precise control of operating conditions. Single-factor experiments were conducted to analyze the effects of pump pressure, traverse speed, cutting angle, abrasive mass flow rate, standoff distance, and nozzle diameter. Both qualitative analysis and quantitative evaluation were employed to identify parameter ranges that maximize cutting efficiency or...
Spinning Bath Evaporator Availability and Reliability Enhancement Proposal
Jan Palátka, Karel Mayer, Martin Pexa, Eva Olmrová
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):199-219 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.022
A single-stage evaporator with natural circulation was used to densify the plasticizing bath through continuous evaporation and to prepare a solution used in the production of viscose fiber. During the process, sodium calcium sulfate salts were formed, leading to fouling of the heat transfer surfaces in the heat exchangers. This fouling created a layer of deposits that gradually reduced the efficiency of the evaporation process in the evaporator. It was determined that a processing medium with a volumetric flow rate of 6 m³·h⁻¹ required a heat exchanger power of 1448 kW. A fouling layer with a thickness of 0.1 mm reduced the heat...
Finite Element Secondary Development of Constitutive Model for Titanium Alloy Vibration-Assisted Cold Upsetting Forming
Xu Yani, Wang Ying, Wei Chuhan, Lin Kai, Shu Xuedao
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):239-248 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.021
To achieve precise finite element simulation of the vibration-assisted cold heading process of titanium alloys, this study focuses on Ti-45Nb titanium alloy as the research object. A constitutive model for vibration-assisted cold heading is established, incorporating both viscoelastic and viscoplastic deformation. The model is transformed into a programmable incremental form, and the control equations for elastic-viscoplastic deformation are derived. Secondary development is conducted using the VUMAT interface of ABAQUS, and the model is applied in simulation. Multi-condition simulations of Ti-45Nb titanium alloy cold heading are performed, and the...
3D Printing – Dimensional Accuracy and Stability of PLA and PETG Prints Using the FDM Technology
Alexandr Fales, Vít Černohlávek, Marcin Suszynski, Jan Štěrba, Patrik Balcar, Pavel Houška
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):148-163 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.020
This study examines the influence of FDM printing parameters on replica parts for an educational robotics kit, targeting functional compatibility without post-processing. A VEX Robotics 2×12 Beam (228‑2500‑026) was used as the reference part. Reference dimensions were obtained as mean values from 10 original VEX IQ parts. Replicas were printed from PLA and PETG on Original Prusa MK4 printers using four infill patterns and six infill densities (15–70%). For each material–pattern–density combination, 10 parts were produced, resulting in 480 printed samples. Width, length, and height were measured with a Mitutoyo MiSTAR 555...
Evaluation of C45 Steel Hardening Process Using High-Speed Videography and ISO 9950 Test
Petr Beneš, Vojtěch Taubr
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):124-132 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.019
The paper deals with the influence of various quenching media based on polymer aqueous solutions on the quenching process of carbon steel C45, connecting theoretical knowledge about heat transfer, surface phenomena and phase transformations with experimental verification. Surface phenomena at the interface of the hardened sample and the quenching medium were monitored using a high-speed camera. Cooling curves of the samples were obtained using the method according to ISO 9950 (Determination of cooling characteristics – Nickel-alloy probe test method). The paper contains practical recommendations for optimizing industrial hardening processes,...
Thermoplastic Resin Flow Behaviour in Foam Core Sandwich Composites for Aerospace Applications During Vacuum Infusion Process
Jana Zemanova, Bohuslav Cabrnoch, Michal Kral
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):249-256 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.018
This article presents the research findings on the flow behaviour of thermoplastic resin in foam core sandwich composites for aerospace applications during the vacuum assisted infusion process. After optimizing the process parameters, two sandwich panels were manufactured using glass fibre fabrics, a polymethacrylimide (PMI) foam core, and a liquid acrylic resin. To compare the sandwich and monolithic structure process behaviour, a monolithic composite panel was also manufactured. By combining experimental monitoring with Darcy's law, permeability differences between the structures were evaluated. The results indicate that PMI foam does not significantly...
Machine Learning-Based Predictive Modelling of EDM and EAM-V Processes for Performance Analysis
Shrihar Pandey, Rajesh Kumar, Abhay Kumar Singh, Robert Cep, Priyanka Singh, Mihir Kumar Pandey, B. Swarna
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):220-232 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.017
Abstract- The promotion of Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) and vibration aided Electric Arc Machining (EAM-V) processes is characterized in the study in terms of their capability for precision manufacture, mainly drawing any performance comparisons from a machine learning approach. The present machine learning study aims to predict some important metrics of machining utility, such as Material Removal Rate (MRR), Tool Wear Rate (TWR), and Surface Roughness (SR), against process parameters like current, pulse-on/off time, etc. Some advanced models like Gradient Boosting and Random Forest are used to analyze the efficacy and effectiveness of EDM...
Hybrid ANN–GA Modeling and Experimental Optimization of GMAW-Based Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum 5083 for Enhanced Mechanical Properties
Teephet Chaiyason, Suriya Prasomthong, Panuwat Thosa, Sittichai Charonerat, Phattharapong Keidlaphi
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):133-147 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.016
Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) based on Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) has emerged as a cost-effective and high-deposition process for fabricating large-scale aluminum components. However, its application to non-heat-treatable aluminum 5083 remains limited by thermal-cycle in-stabilities, porosity, and non-uniform mechanical performance. This study presents an integrated experimental and artificial-intelligence framework for optimizing key GMAW parameters—welding current, wire-feed speed, and welding speed—to enhance the mechanical properties of WAAM-fabricated aluminum 5083 walls. An L9 Taguchi design was employed to quantify parameter...
Influence of the Manufacturing Route on the High-Temperature Oxidation Behavior of IN718 Alloy in Simulated Modern Energy Environments
Patrícia Lovašiová, Jan Hruška, Tomáš Lovaši, Miroslav Zetek, Yusuf Bakir, Ivana Zetková
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):185-198 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.015
The use of supercritical water in energy applications is motivated by the aim of increasing the thermal efficiency of power systems. However, structural materials exposed to this environment may undergo corrosive degradation. The objective of this study was to conduct experiments on samples exposed to simulated operational conditions in supercritical water, steam, and air. The material surfaces were sub-sequently analyzed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM/EDS). Particular attention was given to the formation of oxide layers on the nickel-based alloy Inconel 718 produced by additive...
Experimental Solution of the Influence of Tire Pressure on Vehicle Consumption and their Service Life
Patrik Balcar, Martin Svoboda, Milan Chalupa, Milan Sapieta, Pavel Houška, Alexandr Fales, Martin Novák
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):118-123 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.014
This article deals with the experimental investigation of the influence of tire pressure on fuel consumption and tire life in passenger cars. Using laboratory and real-world operational measurements, the dependence between tire pressure and temperature, contact patch size, tread wear, and changes in driving characteristics was analyzed. The results show that even slight deviations from the prescribed pressure can lead to increased fuel consumption, shortened tire life, and reduced driving comfort and safety. The article also draws attention to the insufficient use of pressure monitoring systems in practice and points to the economic and ecological...
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Biomedical Co-Cr-Mo Alloy Produced by Precision Casting and 3D Printing Technologies
Hana Thürlová, Dalibor Vojtěch
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(2):233-238 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.013
Cobalt-based alloys are widely used for orthopedic implants due to their excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. Biomedical Co-Cr-Mo alloy, commonly applied in knee replacements, is typically produced by precision casting. However, in cases requiring patient-specific geometries, additive manufacturing technologies, such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM), offer promising alternatives. This study compares the microstructure and mechanical properties of Co-Cr-Mo alloy in the as-cast state and after SLM processing. The SLM-produced samples exhibited a fine, cellular microstructure and superior mechanical strength. Specifically, the printed...
Study on Thermo-Structural Coupling Mechanism and Multi-Field Evolution Law during the Firing Process of Ceramic Slabs
Xianewei Wang, Wenlong Xu, Hailong Yu, Chenyang Li, Haikuo Zhao, Yihang Feng, Caiqi Fang, Heng Zhang, Aihua Xu, Wentao Xie, Xiulian Li
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):106-116 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.012
To address cracking and deformation in large-size ceramic slabs during firing induced by thermo-structural coupling, this study established an indirect thermo-structural coupling finite element model in Ansys to analyze an 820 mm×100 mm×6.32 mm slab. The evolution of temperature field, stress field, and deformation was investigated across four firing stages. Results indicate that the rapid cooling stage, with a high convective heat transfer coefficient, forms the cycle’s maximum thermal gradient, showing the most asymmetric temperature field of mid-plane high, surfaces low and a ~17°C surface-mid-plane temperature difference. The stress field...
Beverage-Cans as a Source of Hydrogen – Analysis of Leaching Residues
Alena Michalcová, Pavel Novák, Šárka Msallamová
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):63-67 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.011
Aluminium beverage-can are common material for secondary utilization. Their recycling is slightly com-plicated by presence of organic materials in them and lack of collection points (although the legislative in this case is rapidly changing to be more friendly). Another approach to deal with beverage-cans is using them as a source of hydrogen. In this manuscript, the evolution of hydrogen in 10 wt. % NaOH solution is described. The leaching residues were analysed in detail. Their chemical and phase composi-tion were measured, and the amount of trapped hydrogen was also analysed. The beverage-cans are usually composed of 3004 and 5182. The residues...
Machine Learning Regression Approaches for Manufacturing Cost and Time Prediction: A Comprehensive Review
Michal Matějka, Milan Dian, Jan Lhota, Theodor Beran, Vojtěch Hlinák
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):53-62 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.010
Today, machine learning regression methods are quietly but fundamentally transforming cost and time estimation in manufacturing: from early pricing to labor planning to operational order management. This survey offers a comprehensive map of approaches - from linear models, to tree ensembles (RF, GBM, XGBoost) and shallow neural networks, to multi-target and tensor regressions that can exploit data structure across BOM items and sequences of operations. With an emphasis on SME conditions, we show how to reconcile three often conflicting requirements of practice: accuracy, explainability, and integration into existing data flows (MES/ERP). The paper...
Normalized Statistical Evaluation of Machining Parameters and Cutting Forces in Turning
Tanuj Namboodri, Csaba Felhő, Ashwani Kumar
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):68-77 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.009
Investigation of cutting forces in metal cutting is of great importance for defining the effectiveness of the production as well as its impact on product quality. Several researchers studied the effect of cutting parameters on the cutting forces through statistical analysis; however, very few studies use the normalization of the data. Normalization reduces the skewness in the data and increases the accuracy of the results, which can be beneficial in modern industry where AI is being integrated with manufacturing. This research aimed to study the statistical analysis of cutting parameters and cutting forces using log-normalization and compare the accuracy...
Influence of High–melting–point Metals on the Mechanical Properties of Selected Al–Si Alloys
Tomáš Vlach, Jaromír Cais, Veronika Chvalníková, Martin Slezák, Jiří Brejcha, Tomáš Burket, Dominik Fink, Jan Sviantek
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):95-105 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.008
This article is dedicated to exploring the potential enhancement of mechanical properties, such as hardness and tensile strength, in selected Al-Si alloys (AlSi7Mg0.3, AlSi7Cu4, and Al-Si10.5Cu1.2Mn0.8Ni1.2). High-melting-point elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, are rarely utilized as additives in Al-Si alloys. However, the article demonstrates the feasibility of improving the mechanical properties of these alloys through the addition of high-melting-point elements. High-melting-point metals, often referred to as refractory metals, typically have melting points above 2000 degrees Celsius. Common refractory metals include tungsten, molybdenum,...
Effect of Accelerated Aging on the Mechanical Properties of FFF-Manufactured Polymers
Marcel Kohutiar, Martin Bednařík, Ivan Labaj, Róbert Janík, Jan Hanzlík, Michal Krbata, Jakub Zatloukal
Manufacturing Technology 2026, 26(1):43-52 | DOI: 10.21062/mft.2026.007
This study examines the effect of accelerated weathering on the mechanical and viscoelastic properties of thermoplastics produced by fused filament fabrication (FFF). Three polymers, acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA), polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), and polylactic acid (PLA), were subjected to alternating UV radiation and condensation cycles in a QUV chamber simulating environmental exposure. Tensile testing and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) were used to evaluate the changes in strength, stiffness, and glass-transition behavior. The results revealed distinct responses depending on the polymer structure. ASA maintained its ductility...